design history Archives

Design History Series N. 016

Beth Levine and American Footwear

In our Design History Series we highlight iconic women in design history and their innovative work. The historic contributions of women to design are many, and we aim to increase the awareness of these contributions in order to counteract a general trend of underrepresentation. In this issue we celebrate Beth Levine, the most influential and innovative American shoe designer of the twentieth century.

Tiny Feet, Big Dreams

Beth Levine, dubbed “America’s First Lady of Shoe Design,” left an indelible mark on the world of footwear that continues to influence contemporary fashion. Born in Patchogue, New York, in 1914, Levine soon left Long Island for a shoe modeling career in New York City. She had incredibly tiny feet (US size 4, EU size 35) that were the sample size of the era, and developed a keen intuition for how shoes would fit. At the time, shoe designers were men, usually those descended from generations of cobblers. Levine realized that she understood just as much about what constituted a good shoe as these prominent designers, if not more, and was determined to design shoes herself.

Creating the Brand

In 1946, while applying to work at a shoe manufacturer, she met and married Herbert Levine, then a fashion executive. The two founded their shoe factory, Herbert Levine, Inc. in 1948 and Beth began making shoes under Herbert’s name. At the time, footwear had not yet been sold with a woman’s name on the product. The factory was known for its excellence, and talent was brought to New York from all over the world to ensure top quality. She was known for relishing the challenges of footwear, saying “Clothes designers have gravity on their side, but shoe designers work upside down. Ideas are easy to come by. Getting them realized is something else.”

The couple had a vision to create shoes that were not just functional but also captivating. Using strategic cutouts and careful material choices, Levine became known for shoes that made women’s feet appear smaller and were therefore perceived as more elegant. Levine is credited with repopularizing the mule silhouette with this approach. At the same time, she wanted her designs to be comfortable above all, and she wasn’t afraid to be playful and bold. Beth’s innovative designs and Herbert’s business sense propelled the brand to prominence, garnering attention from fashion icons like Barbra Streisand and America’s first ladies of the era; Lady Bird Johnson, Patricia Nixon, and Jacqueline Kennedy.

Making History (Again and Again)

One of Beth’s most significant contributions to footwear design was her role in reintroducing boots to women’s fashion in the 1960s. Through her creative vision, boots transformed from utilitarian items into stylish fashion statements. Her stretchy stocking styles and vinyl Go-Go boots captured the spirit of the era and became iconic symbols of liberation and empowerment, epitomized by Nancy Sinatra’s hit song “These Boots Are Made For Walkin’.” The song not only propelled the demand for fashion boots but also led to the establishment of “Beth’s Bootery”, a dedicated fashion boot department at Saks Fifth Avenue.

Beth’s designs were characterized by their whimsical charm and innovative use of materials. On a dare she designed “topless” or “upper-less” heels, shoes with no upper that would be affixed to the foot with adhesive pads. She called another style “Barefoot in the Grass” and lined the insole with AstroTurf. For the wife of a driver in the 1967 Indianapolis 5000, she designed a shoe that resembles (adorably) a race car, which became so popular that variations on the design were released for years afterward. Her creations pushed the boundaries of conventional footwear. She experimented with unconventional materials (hello, AstroTurf) like vinyl, acrylic, and laminate, creating shoes that were not only visually striking but also ahead of their time. She also developed the now universally standard practice of putting an illustration of the shoe on the outside of the shoebox.

An Enduring Legacy

Throughout her career, Beth Levine received numerous accolades for her groundbreaking designs, including the prestigious Coty Award in 1967. Her ability to marry creativity with functionality revolutionized the shoe industry and paved the way for future generations of designers. Despite the closure of the Herbert Levine brand in 1975, Beth’s legacy endures through her iconic designs, many of which are housed in international costume collections. To Levine, who passed away in 2006, the only mistake in design is to “play it safe”. Today, her innovative spirit continues to inspire designers and fashion enthusiasts alike, reminding us of the enduring impact of her contributions to the history of footwear design.

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Design History Series N. 015

Louise Nevelson and Shadows and Flags

In our new Design History Series we highlight iconic women in design history and their innovative work. The historic contributions of women to design are many, and we aim to increase the awareness of these contributions in order to counteract a general trend of underrepresentation. In this issue, in keeping with this month’s theme of public art, we celebrate American sculptor Louise Nevelson, hailed as the “grande dame of contemporary sculpture,” and her mammoth public art work Shadows and Flags.

New York, New York!

Louise Nevelson was born in Kyiv, then part of the Russian Empire, in 1899. Her family relocated to Rockland, Maine, in 1905, where her father managed a lumberyard. Growing up surrounded by scraps from the yard, Nevelson’s early fascination with sculpting emerged. By the age of ten, she had declared her ambition to become a professional sculptor.

In 1920, Nevelson married Charles Nevelson, a wealthy ship owner she would divorce in 1941, and moved to New York. In the city Nevelson encountered Cubism and collage, shaping her artistic sensibilities. Notably, she worked as an assistant to Diego Rivera on a mural project and as an art teacher for the Works Progress Administration, fostering her growth as an artist. Within the male-dominated postwar art scene of New York, Nevelson carved her niche, notable as a woman artist in a field dominated by men.

Though Nevelson held her first solo exhibition in 1941, it wasn’t until the late 1950s that she developed her signature style of monochromatic, spray-painted wooden assemblages. Her innovative approach involved arranging discarded wood pieces into abstract compositions, often forming sculptural walls and environments unified by a single color. While she became best known for these assemblages, which were featured in museums around the world, she was also prominent in the public art scene, crafting massive outdoor compositions in scrap metal that were oversized cousins to her already large cabinet-style works in wood.

Shadows and Flags

Nevelson was commissioned by the Public Arts Fund to create a site-specific public art work to revitalize a formerly empty lot. The result was Shadows and Flags, a series of monumental curved forms that appear to float and billow in the air like flags. The series included seven towering sculptures encasing columns ranging from 20 to 40 feet high. The sculptures were carefully proportioned to rise just above the surrounding buildings and were painted in Nevelson’s iconic black, which to her signified the sum of all colors and the potential of all experience. Nevelson created the sculptures from salvaged scrap metal and old machine parts, and was raised on a crane to assemble the sculptures in mid-air.

Shadows and Flags, designed when Nevelson was in her 70s, was her last major public art work. Installed in 1977 within the Financial District’s Legion Memorial Square at 10 Liberty Street, the plaza was transformed into Louise Nevelson Plaza the following year, marking the first time such an honor was bestowed upon a female artist in New York City.

Adversity and Redesign

As the Louise Nevelson Plaza is not far from the World Trade Center, it underwent significant alterations after the disastrous events of 9/11, reflecting broader security concerns in the area. The addition of security measures, including a guard booth and bench rearrangements, reshaped the plaza’s layout and, as a result, the layout of Shadows and Flags.

The plaza underwent further revisions in 2007, when one of the sculptures fell victim to a truck collision and had to be permanently removed. Today, six sculptures remain, though all but the largest have been moved from their intended positions, as have benches and other environmental details that were originally determined by Nevelson, dismantling the artist’s vision of the space.

In 2009, the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation collaborated with the Department of Transportation (DOT) and other firms to revitalize the neighborhood around the plaza, enhancing both the look and the functionality to the community. Though the plaza is a celebrated public space in the city, it is unclear how dramatically misaligned it might be from Nevelson’s vision, which was never fully documented.

The story of Shadows and Flags highlights the impermanence of public art, and the importance of the artist’s oversight as well as careful record-keeping in public art projects. The project is a partly cautionary tale, underscoring the ongoing struggle to uphold artists’ legacies—even incredibly famous and well-respected artists—in ever-changing urban landscapes.

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Design History Series N. 014

Gae Aulenti and the Parola Table Lamp

In our Design History Series we highlight iconic women in design history and their innovative work. The historic contributions of women to design are many, and we aim to increase the awareness of these contributions in order to counteract a general trend of underrepresentation. In this issue we celebrate Gae Aulenti, an Italian pioneer in industrial design and architecture and the creator of the Parola table lamp, among many other notable designs.

Architectural Beginnings

In Milan in 1954, Gae Aulenti was one of two women in a class of 20 to graduate with a degree in architecture. At a time known for reviving traditional architectural values, Aulenti’s transformative projects integrated historical spaces with contemporary sensibilities. The conversion of the Beaux-Arts Gare d’Orsay railway station in Paris into the Musée d’Orsay (1980-1986) stands as a testament to her ability to marry old-world charm with modern aesthetics. This project, while controversial at the time, solidified Aulenti’s place as the go-to architect and designer for museum renovations in the 80s, 90s, and 2000s.

Diving into Design

Aulenti became the artistic director of the design brand Fontana Arte in 1979, where she created many notable lighting and furniture designs. Aulenti’s designs were characterized by a harmonious blend of functionality and beauty. Her creations, marked by clean lines and geometric shapes, reflected a balance of form and function. She experimented with unconventional materials such as glass, steel, and plastic, further underscoring her innovative spirit. At the core of Aulenti’s design philosophy was the belief that architecture and design are integral components of everyday life, and therefore cannot be considered separately from daily rituals. She championed a holistic approach to design, emphasizing the interconnectedness of objects with their surroundings. Her designs were meant to be not single, isolated elements but parts of a bigger, unified whole.

The Parola Lamp

The Parola table lamp, one of Gae Aulenti’s most famous product designs, demonstrates her ability to blend tradition with modernity. Designed with Piero Castiglioni in 1980, the lamp uses three kinds of glass processes: blown glass, natural glass and natural crystal. The design pulls from processes all across the spectrum from artisan to industrial, making each lamp a testament to Aulenti’s admiration for Italian craftsmanship and quality. The dimmable light is diffused through the frosted spherical blown glass shade. A diagonal cut on the top of the sphere creates a distinctly asymmetrical form, which can be rotated to direct the strongest light. The frosted blown glass shade rests on a clear borosilicate glass stem rising from a polished crystal glass base. Its sleek silhouette and minimalist design reflect a mid-century modern sensibility, while its adjustable shade offers tailored functionality. The lamp has sold continuously since its launch and is still available for purchase.

Gae Aulenti pushed for a holistic approach to design that feels entirely fresh and contemporary to us today but which was rebellious and pioneering in her time. From her groundbreaking renovation of the Musée d’Orsay to her innovative lighting and furniture designs, Aulenti’s designs continue to inspire. Her emphasis on the interconnectedness of objects with their surroundings serves as a reminder of the power of this holistic philosophy as we work on our own projects. In celebrating Gae Aulenti, we recognize her as a visionary in the history of design and applaud her commitment to excellence.

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Universal Design: A Brief History and Why it Matters

Universal design is design that can be understood and used by all individuals, regardless of age, size, ability, or disability, to the greatest extent possible. Whether it’s a building, product, service, or environment, the goal of universal design is to develop it in a way that caters to the needs of anyone who wants to use it. This isn’t a specialized requirement for a minority use-case but a fundamental aspect of effective design. The principles of universal design emphasize flexibility, simplicity, and a profound understanding of the diverse needs of users. While we see it as a critical aspect of contemporary design, the concept hasn’t been around all that long. In this Insight article we discuss key influences that lead to the development of universal design as we know it today and outline why it is an increasingly essential design approach.

Changing Demographics

Since the turn of the century, advancements in healthcare, improved living conditions, and the elimination of deadly infectious diseases have contributed to a significant increase in life expectancy. In addition, the aftermath of two world wars and medical breakthroughs resulted in a substantial population of individuals with disabilities. By 1994, over 20% of the U.S. population, around 53 million people, had some level of disability. Today, the U.S. population is the oldest it has ever been. The number of Americans aged 65 and older is forecasted to increase from 58 million in 2022 to 82 million by 2050. These demographic shifts underscore the importance of addressing the diverse needs of an aging and disabled population, then and now.

The intersection of design and societal demographics has undergone a remarkable transformation throughout the 20th century, particularly in addressing the needs of older adults and individuals with disabilities. In the early 1900s, these groups were true minorities, facing challenges in a world designed without consideration for their unique requirements. Today, the landscape has shifted dramatically, with changing demographics influencing design philosophy and popularizing the concept of universal design.

The Barrier-Free Movement

The term ‘universal design’ was coined by the American architect Ronald Mace, a champion of accessible building codes, and made its debut in 1963 in Selwyn Goldsmith’s Designing for the Disabled, a U.K. text that pioneered access for persons with disabilities in the built environment and was revised in 1997 for a contemporary audience. Goldsmith famously created the dropped curb, now a standard feature of sidewalks across the globe. The idea that the environment needed to be accessible pre-dated Goldsmith’s text by about a decade, and is generally accepted as beginning with the barrier-free movement of the 1950s.

In the 1950s the barrier-free movement arose in response to the large numbers of World War II soldiers who had been injured or disabled in the war and their advocates. Barriers in the built environment limited their opportunities for employment and education, and the barrier-free movement initiated a push for public policy changes as well as a reimagining of public space. National standards for barrier-free buildings were developed by the early 60s, though they would not be enacted until adopted by individual state legislatures as much as a decade later. The shift from barrier-free to universal design emphasized inclusivity, affordability, and aesthetics, recognizing that features designed for accessibility could benefit everyone.

Paving the Way

It’s easy to criticize the shortcomings of our current mandates regarding accessibility but it’s important to acknowledge the major legislative victories that have brought us to where we are today, and what a dramatic improvement they are on the guidelines of the past. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s set the stage for the Disability Civil Rights Movement, influencing legislation in the 1970s that aimed to eliminate discrimination and provide access to education, public spaces, telecommunications, and transportation. The Architectural Barriers Act of 1968 mandated accessibility for buildings constructed with federal funds, marking a crucial step toward inclusivity.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 was a landmark civil rights law, prohibiting discrimination based on disability. The Education for Handicapped Children Act of 1975 ensured a free, appropriate education for children with disabilities. The Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988 expanded coverage to include families with children and people with disabilities.

The critical turning point in federal legislation was the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, a watershed act that triggered widespread awareness of the civil rights of people with disabilities. This comprehensive legislation addressed discrimination in employment, public spaces, services, transportation, and telecommunications, ensuring a basic level of accessibility nationwide.

From Rehabilitation to Mainstream Markets

While universal design sought to integrate individuals into mainstream design, assistive technology aimed to meet specific needs. Despite their different origins, both fields converged in the middle ground, addressing physical and attitudinal barriers between people with and without disabilities.

African American female IT engineer in wheelchair

The economic downturn of the 1980s impacted funds for the rehabilitation engineering research prompted by the injured veterans of World War II. At the same time, product manufacturers recognized the market potential of assistive products. In 1988, New York City’s Museum of Modern Art showcased “Designs for Independent Living,” featuring products that considered the needs of older adults and people with disabilities. The commercial world began acknowledging these demographics as viable customers. It gradually became clear that a universal design approach could attract buyers beyond the target audience. The success of OXO’s Good Grips kitchen utensils in 1990 exemplified this trend. The products, initially designed for people with arthritis, were appealing to all, not only for their functionality but also for their aesthetic appeal. This marked a shift toward recognizing the marketability of inclusive design. A prominent champion of universal design (and member of the OXO Good Grips development team) is Patricia Moore, an American industrial designer who spent her entire career pushing the boundaries of inclusive design, particularly in the field of gerontological design.

The fields of human factors, ergonomics, and human-centered design are natural allies of universal design, as are the fields of co-design and participatory design, which focus closely on the needs of a specific audience, soliciting and harnessing insights of that audience to develop the solution.

Maximizing Inclusion

The quest for independence and equal rights gained momentum alongside the growth in the disabled population. Baby boomers have embraced inclusive products, challenging stereotypes of aging and gradually normalizing the presence of these products in the market. Buyers of assistive technology now demand products that consider both form and function, suiting their specific needs and use cases. These buyers may be permanent or temporary members of the disabled population, or they may simply like the functionality of the product. The social climate is shifting toward recognizing and respecting the diverse needs of all consumers.

In the 21st century, with our increased life expectancy and our increasingly diverse population, the momentum to develop inclusive products and environments is growing. While ‘universal design’ was a term limited to specialists in design, user experience, computer engineering, architecture, and the like, it is gaining traction outside these fields as its principles yield fruit. Universal design provides a blueprint for maximum inclusion, acknowledging the diversity of the current generation as well as the need to consider the full range of that diversity when building a product, environment, or service.

The demographic, legislative, economic, and social changes that have shaped universal design are propelling the field into the future. When an environment is accessible, user-friendly, convenient, and enjoyable to use, it benefits everyone involved. Through considering the diverse needs and abilities of all individuals during the design process, universal design produces digital and physical environments, services, and systems that effectively meet the needs of people. In essence, universal design equates to good design.

Check out our even adaptive inclusive lingerie project to learn more about universal design, and check out the rest of our Insight series to learn more about the design industry. Sign up for our newsletter and follow us on Instagram and LinkedIn for design news, multi-media recommendations, and to learn more about product design and development!

Design History Series N. 013

Patricia Moore and Universal Design

In our new Design History Series we highlight iconic women in design history and their innovative work. The historic contributions of women to design are many, and we aim to increase the awareness of these contributions in order to counteract a general trend of underrepresentation. In this issue we celebrate Patricia Moore, one of the key proponents of universal design and arguably its most dedicated champion.

Metamorphosis

In 1979 Moore was the only female industrial designer at Raymond Loewy Associates, a well-respected firm famous for NASA’s Skylab space station as well as many household products. During a meeting she proposed designing a refrigerator door that could be used with ease, sharing that this was an issue for her arthritic grandmother. The idea was immediately dismissed as, it was explained, the firm predominantly targeted middle-aged male professionals. Frustrated by this narrow focus, Moore realized that she wanted to design for everyone, the elderly included. But first, she would need to understand their experience.

*Photo: Patricia Moore during her immersion as an 80-year-old in her twenties.*

With the help of a talented makeup artist, Moore underwent a remarkable metamorphosis into “Old Pat,” employing makeup and elaborate prosthetics to simulate the experience of life as an elderly woman. She wore a range of costumes to indicate different class levels to see how class layered with aging to influence how she was treated. Over three years, she traveled incognito to 116 cities, documenting the prejudices and challenges faced by the elderly. These experiences and insights eventually became her book, “Disguised,” published in 1985. Despite the challenges she faced, including a brutal physical assault during her “Old Pat” experiment, Moore remained committed to empathy-driven design.

In the early 1980s, Moore founded MooreDesign Associates, positioning herself as a central figure in the popularization and adoption of “universal design,” which advocates for the creation of products and environments that cater to the diverse needs of individuals, regardless of age or ability. Throughout her career, Moore has collaborated with major corporations, including Johnson & Johnson, Boeing, Kraft, AT&T, Herman Miller, and 3M. She is especially well-known for her work with Smart Design on the development of the iconic Oxo Good Grips kitchen tools, which have become a benchmark for profitable and elegant universal design. Moore’s philosophy emphasizes that the universal design should transcend age or ability, centering instead on lifestyle. She advocates for designs that seamlessly accommodate changing needs at any stage of life and is aptly known as the “Mother of Empathy.”

A Paradigm Shift

Patricia Moore’s journey aligns with the evolution of universal design, a concept that has redefined how designers approach their craft. The wider adoption of universal design coincided with the societal shifts of the late 20th century. This era, which grew out of the by the Civil Rights and Women’s Rights movements of the 60s and 70s, witnessed an increasing awareness of diversity and inclusivity, prompting designers to move beyond the traditional, one-size-fits-all approach. Thought it was pioneered in the 60s, the concept of universal design didn’t imply true inclusivity until the early 2000s. It took champions like Moore to bring attention to universal design and demand action from the design community. Moore’s groundbreaking experiment as “Old Pat” drew attention to the unique challenges faced by the elderly, contributing to a paradigm shift in design philosophy and revolutionizing gerontological design. A steadily aging population has underscored the importance of this critical work. Now in her 70s, Patricia Moore remains one of the most influential practitioners of universal design.

The principles of universal design emphasize flexibility, simplicity, and a profound understanding of the diverse needs of users. Moore’s contributions have played a pivotal role in fostering design that prioritizes empathy, inclusivity, and a deep understanding of the human experience.